By World War II, the process of breaking barriers historically facing women had started, but was far from over.
"Home Industry," A woman and her daughters do piecemeal sewing work at home, 1911 Credit: Lewis Hine, Library of Congress
"For Every Fighter a Woman Worker" WWI Poster. Credit: Pritzker Military Museum and Library
Women work in a munitions factory during WWI Credit: TUC Collections, London Metropolitan University
During World War I (1914-1918) women entered many new jobs.
“The women worked as ammunition testers, switchboard operators, stock takers. They went into every kind of factory devoted to the production of war materials, from the most dangerous posts in munition plants to the delicate sewing in aeroplane factories.”
~ Alice Dunbar Nelson, American Poet and Civil Rights Activist, on women's roles in WWI, 1918 (National WWI Museum and Memorial, "Women in World War I.")
“Well, at one stage for every shell that we fired, they fired a dozen. Oh we were overwhelmed, there’s no doubt about that…So they removed all the restrictions about women labour, said, ‘You can employ women wherever you like on whatever you like, whatever they’re capable of doing – put ’em in the shell factories.’ And that’s when we started to get shells and shells and more and more and more shells. And they were a saviour, they really were. Because if they hadn’t removed those restrictions about the employment of women labour, we’d have been in trouble.”
~ Victor "Hal" Kerridge, British Private, WWI (The Imperial War Museum, "Interview with Victor 'Hal' Kerridge.")
In 1920, American women won the right to vote, overcoming widespread opposition.
Gustin, E.W. "Election Day!" 1909 Credit: Library of Congress
Currier and Ives. "The Age of Iron" 1869 Credit: Library of Congress
Coffin, George. "The Apotheosis of Suffrage" 1896. Credit: Library of Congress
Women served openly in US military women's reserves since 1917. While considered military personnel, they were limited to clerical, housekeeping, and similar duties. Women served as nurses with American armed forces since the American Revolution.
Continental Congress' act creating a hospital department for the continental army Credit: US National Archives
"1 nurse to every 10 sick. 1/15 of a dollar [per] day or 2 dollars [per] month."
~ Act creating a hospital department for the Continental Army (National Archives, "Miscellaneous Papers of the Continental Congress. Journal of the Continental Congress, 1775. July 27, 1775.")
Loretta Perfectus Walsh, first woman to openly enlist in the US Navy, 1917 Credit: United States Navy Memorial
Women in the US Naval Reserve, WWI Credit: National Museum of the US Navy
Opha Mae Johnson, first woman to openly enlist as a US Marine, 1918 Credit: United States WWI Centennial Commission
“It does not say … anywhere that a yeoman must be a man.”
~ Navy Secretary Josephus Daniels, 1917. (Jessica Myers, "Celebrating the First Enlisted Women.")
"It's a fine life, and it's wonderful to know that you are serving your country."
~ "Yeomanette" Pauline Greaves, US Navy, WWI. (Bill Millers, "Yeomanettes and Women Go to War.")
When WWII increased demand for personnel, several women's auxiliaries were created. Their duties mirrored earlier women's reserves, but broke new barriers, by including mechanics, technicians, and instructors.
WAVES recruitment poster. Credit: Paris, Milton, Hennepin County Library
WAAC recruitment poster. Credit: Smith, Dan V., Hennepin County Library
Poster encouraging women to work in non-traditional jobs. Credit: Grant, Vernon, Library of Congress
"When I look back, I realize we broke down a lot of barriers we didn't even realize were there. We just put our heads down, did work, kept moving and earned respect."
~ M. Susan Windsich, WAAC and US Army (Elizabeth Collins, "Remembering the Women's Army Corps.")
Needed or not though, women in the military weren't always welcomed.
"Women generals would rush about the country dictating orders to male personnel and telling the commanding officers of posts how to run their business."
"Who will do the cooking, the washing, the mending-the humble home tasks to which every woman has devoted herself?"
~ Arguments in the US Senate regarding women's participation in the military in WWII, Congressional Register, May 14, 1942
US Senate in 1939 Credit: US Government, US Senate
1943 U.S. Army Air Force photo Credit: United States Air Force,
Army Nurses in WWII Credit: Indiana State Library
Some barriers remained.
"It is generally recognized that male pilots have a wider and more varied potential usefulness to the armed forces than female pilots...To limit our training to young men is only another in a series of steps based on this philosophy."
~ Robert Hinkley, Civil Aeronautics Administration, letter to Eleanor Roosevelt, 1941 (Deborah Douglas, United States Women in Aviation: 1940-1985.)
In 1932 Amelia Earhart flew nonstop across America, and by 1940 hundreds of women were licensed pilots. Women flew for America's allies, but not for America.
Women of the Soviet 588th all-women bomber squadron, the "Night Witches" Credit: Museum of Women Pilots
"It was a miracle we didn't lose more aircraft. Our planes were the slowest in the air force. They often came back riddled with bullets, but they kept flying."
~ Nadia Popova, Pilot in the Soviet 588th all-women bomber squadron, the "Night Witches" (Monash University Australia, "Marina Raskova and the Soviet Women Pilots of World War II.")
Lettice Curtis, British ATA pilot enters a Spitfire, WWII Credit: The Independent. London, UK.
"Everybody was flabbergasted that a little girl like me could fly these big airplanes all by oneself."
~ Mary Ellis, British ATA pilot, WWII (Ceylan Yeginsu, "Mary Ellis, Who Flew British Spitfires in World War II, Dies at 101.")
The time was right for that to change.
"We have about 650 licensed women pilots in this country. Most of them would be of little use today, but most of them could be of great use a few months hence if properly trained and organized. And if they had some official standing or patriotic objective (rather than just fly around an airport occasionally for fun) there would be thousands more women pilots than there are now."
~ Jacqueline Cochran, "Proposal to Eleanor Roosevelt for Women Pilots in National Emergency," September 28, 1939 (Rhonda Smith-Daugherty, Jacqueline Cochran: Biography of a Pioneer Aviator.)
Credit: Roosevelt, Eleanor, "My Day" September 1, 1942 United Syndicate Inc.
Postcard showing WAC, WAVE, Nursing, SPAR, and Marine Auxiliary Uniforms. Credit: Harvey, Fred
Recruitment poster for WAVES, WACs, SPARs, Marine Auxiliary, and Nursing Corps in WWII Credit: National Museum of American History
"The CAA says that women are psychologically not fitted to be pilots, but I see pictures every now and then of women who are teaching men to fly...I think it is time you women spoke up for yourselves and undertook a campaign to see that our 3500 women fliers, every one of whom is anxious to do something in the war, be given a chance to do it. Hence I am speaking up for the women fliers, because I am afraid we cannot afford to let the time slip by just now without using them."
~ Eleanor Roosevelt, in her syndicated news column, "My Day," September 1, 1942
